Definition and Examples of Autobiography

An autobiography is an account of a persons life written or otherwise recorded by that person. Adjective: autobiographical. Many scholars regard the Confessions (c. 398) by Augustine of Hippo (354–430) as the first autobiography. The term fictional autobiography (or pseudoautobiography) refers to novels that employ first-person narrators who recount the events of their lives as if they actually happened. Well-known examples include David Copperfield (1850) by Charles Dickens and Salingers  The Catcher in the Rye (1951). Some critics believe that all autobiographies are in some ways fictional. Patricia Meyer Spacks has observed that people do make themselves up. . . . To read  an autobiography is  to encounter a self as an imaginative being ( The Female Imagination, 1975). For the distinction between a memoir and an autobiographical composition, see memoir  as well as the examples and observations below.   Etymology From the Greek, self life write Examples of Autobiographical Prose Imitating the Style of the Spectator, by Benjamin FranklinLangston Hughes on HarlemOn the Street, by Emma GoldmanRitual in Maya Angelous Caged BirdThe Turbid Ebb and Flow of Misery, by Margaret SangerTwo Ways of Seeing a River, by Mark Twain Examples and Observations of Autobiographical Compositions An autobiography is an obituary in serial form with the last installment missing.(Quentin Crisp, The Naked Civil Servant, 1968)Putting a life into words rescues it from confusion even when the words declare the omnipresence of confusion, since the art of declaring implies dominance.(Patricia Meyer Spacks, Imagining a Self: Autobiography and Novel in Eighteenth-Century England. Harvard University Press, 1976)The Opening Lines of Zora Neale Hurstons Autobiography- Like the dead-seeming, cold rocks, I have memories within that came out of the material that went to make me. Time and place have had their say.So you will have to know something about the time and place where I came from, in order that you may interpret the incidents and directions of my life.I was born in a Negro town. I do not mean by that the black back-side of an average town. Eatonville, Florida, is, and was at the time of my birth, a pure Negro town--charter, mayor, council, town marshal and all. It was not the first N egro community in America, but it was the first to be incorporated, the first attempt at organized self-government on the part of Negroes in America.Eatonville is what you might call hitting a straight lick with a crooked stick. The town was not in the original plan. It is a by-product of something else. . . .(Zora Neale Hurston, Dust Tracks on a Road. J.B. Lippincott, 1942)- There is a saying in the Black community that advises: If a person asks you where youre going, you tell him where youve been. That way you neither lie nor reveal your secrets. Hurston had called herself the Queen of the Niggerati. She also said, I like myself when Im laughing. Dust Tracks on a Road is written with royal humor and an imperious creativity. But then all creativity is imperious, and Zora Neale Hurston was certainly creative.(Maya Angelou, Foreword to Dust Tracks on a Road, rpt. HarperCollins, 1996)Autobiography and TruthAll autobiographies are lies. I do not mean unconscious, unintentional lies; I mean deliberate lies. No man is bad enough to tell the truth about himself during his lifetime, involving, as it must, the truth about his family and friends and colleagues. And no man is good enough to tell the truth in a document which he suppresses until there is nobody left alive to contradict him.(George Bernard Shaw, Sixteen Self Sketches, 1898)Autobiography is an unrivaled vehicle for telling the truth about other people.(attributed to Thomas Carlyle, Philip Guedalla, and others)Autobiography and Memoir- An autobiography is the story of a life: the name implies that the writer will somehow attempt to capture all the essential elements of that life. A writers autobiography, for example, is not expected to deal merely with the authors growth and career as a writer but also with the facts and emotions connected to family life, education, relationships, sexuality, travels, and inner struggles of all kinds. An autobiography is sometimes limited by dates (as in Under My Skin: Volum e One of My Autobiography to 1949 by Doris Lessing), but not obviously by theme.Memoir, on the other hand, is a story from a life. It makes no pretense of replicating a whole life.(Judith Barrington, Writing the Memoir: From Truth to Art. Eighth Mountain Press, 2002)- Unlike autobiography, which moves in a dutiful line from birth to fame, memoir narrows the lens, focusing on a time in the writers life that was unusually vivid, such as childhood or adolescence, or that was framed by war or travel or public service or some other special circumstance.(William Zinsser, Introduction, Inventing the Truth: The Art and Craft of Memoir. Mariner Books, 1998)An Epidemical Rage for Auto-Biography[I]f the populace of writers become thus querulous after fame (to which they have no pretensions) we shall expect to see an epidemical rage for auto-biography break out, more wide in its influence and more pernicious in its tendency than the strange madness of the Abderites, so accurately described by L ucian. London, like Abdera, will be peopled solely by men of genius; and as the frosty season, the grand specific for such evils, is over, we tremble for the consequences. Symptoms of this dreadful malady (though somewhat less violent) have appeared amongst us before . . ..(Isaac DIsraeli, Review of The Memoirs of Percival Stockdale, 1809)|The Lighter Side of Autobiography- The Confessions of St. Augustine are the first autobiography, and they have this to distinguish them from all other autobiographies, that they are addressed directly to God.(Arthur Symons, Figures of Several Centuries, 1916)- I write fiction and Im told its autobiography, I write autobiography and Im told its fiction, so since Im so dim and theyre so smart, let them decide what it is or isnt.(Philip Roth, Deception, 1990)- Im writing an unauthorized autobiography.(Steven Wright) Pronunciation: o-toe-bi-OG-ra-fee

Mountain Dew Market Analysis - 988 Words

Mountain Dew Mountain Dew is a sugary green drink that has quenched the thirst of millions of Americans for decades, practically ensuring its place as 20th century Americana. The brand originated as an early energizing drink that would keep mountain trekkers powered through their hikes and outdoor activities. Since these humble times, Mountain Dew has maintained an image of a very rural American drink, satisfying customers through vending machines and convenience. In the 21st century, however, the country is changing. The US is becoming less rural and more urban, and therefore old brands like Mountain Dew have to make strategic shifts in order to maintain their competitive edge and focus. (Stanford, 2012) That is why Mountain Dew has decided to make the advertising shift of focus for the brand away from its humble mountain roots, and towards a younger, urban population that finds the drink to fit their lifestyle in a different way than the traditional Mountain Dew drinker. The new pivot of Mountain Dews advertising campaign from rural America to urban America is the right move for the brand. The rural areas of America still consume soft drinks in high proportions, and Mountain Dew will always be important to these communities. The main change for Mountain Dew is that their brand has become very popular with Hispanic and Black rural populations, which do not associate with the traditional message of Mountain Dew. In order to appeal to this new group, Mountain Dew hasShow MoreRelatedStrengths And Weaknesses Of The New Zealand Owned And Operated Essay1298 Words   |  6 Pagesmarketing or financing capabilities, but consumers who chose to find a ‘better’ alternative to Mountain Dew are less likely to switch back to the brand to fulfil wants and needs, as Six-Barrel products make a satisfactory substitute for traditional carbonated drinks. See the summarised strengths and weaknesses of this minor competitor below. 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How did Pepsi Cola Company respond to the growing threat of non-carbonated soft drinks, especially energy drinks and tea? ANSWERS: In 1992, senior management at PepsiCo sensed an opportunity to increase business on Diet Mountain Dew. Diet Mountain {draw:frame} Dews distribution was limited mostlyRead MoreMarketing Report on Mountain Dew8655 Words   |  35 PagesReport Of Mountain Dew Introduction: Company Description PepsiCo, Inc. is among the most successful consumer products companies in the world, with 1999 revenues of over $20 billion and 116,000 employees. The company consists of: Frito-Lay Company, the largest manufacturer and distributor of snack chips; Pepsi-Cola Company, the second largest soft drink business and Tropicana Products, the largest marketer and producer of branded juice. PepsiCo brands are among the best known and most respectedRead MoreQuantification Of Caffeine And Benzoic Acid1605 Words   |  7 PagesQuantification of Caffeine and Benzoic Acid in Mountain Dew Using HPLC Jordan Carey 1 UNF Dr, Jacksonville Fl 32246 Abstract The regulation of contents in beverages is important for the health and safety of the public. The chemicals caffeine and benzoic acid are common additives to beverages for the stimulation effect and as a preservative, respectively. To simultaneously determine the amount of each of these chemicals, a method combining UV/Visible spectroscopy and reversed-phase high performanceRead MoreMountain Dew2117 Words   |  9 Pagesbackground Mountain Dew has been through many changes since it was introduced in 1942. It started out as a yellow-green drink in a green bottle that had a rush of citrus flavor and more sugar and caffeine than any other soft drink. During the introduction of Mountain Dew it was well known throughout the Eastern seaboard. At this time the objectives was to gain market share. Mountain Dew became popular because of the stock car racing circuit known as NASCAR. During the 1960s Mountain Dew’s objectiveRead MoreSwot Analysis Of Mountain Dew And Coca Cola Amatil Essay1847 Words   |  8 Pagesbutting heads in the New Zealand Soft-Drink Duopoly, an industry worth $1.2 Billion. Frucor has a tentative lead with a market share of 37.2%, while Coca-Cola Amatil holds 36.9%, in an industry worth $1.2 billion a year. Frucor, a previously New Zealand owned distributor and bottler, is a leading employer in New Zealand and the distributor of the focal brand, Mountain Dew. Mountain Dew is a citrus flavoured soft-drink with a unique marketing campaign that sees it treated as an energy drink. Frucor isRead MorePepsico Is A U.S Based Food, Snack And Beverage Company1734 Words   |  7 Pagesoperate to help position the company for long-term, sustainable growth. (â€Å"Our Mission Values†, n.d).† In today’s saturated market, it is important for PepsiCo to stay true to that mission. PepsiCo’s commitment to its customers, and employees helps the company to retain a strong and reliable internal environment, where both the customer and employee matter. Internal/External Analysis Strengths: †¢ Background: PepsiCo has a rich history and is widely respected as the second largest food beverage organizationRead MoreCase Analysis : New Coke1130 Words   |  5 PagesCase Analysis: New Coke Situation Analysis Founded in 1892, the Coca-Cola Company is known to have created the â€Å"world’s best-selling soft drink.† However, in the 1970s, Coca-Cola was rivaled by Pepsi-Cola, a competitor offering a substitute product. Coca-Cola had been winning the war for over 87 years when consumers began to prefer Pepsi-Cola’s product. Even loyal Coca-Cola consumers admitted to desiring Pepsi over traditional Coke. These confessions, combined with Pepsi’s own research findingsRead MoreThe Mountain Man Brewing Company Expansion1135 Words   |  5 PagesGuntar Prangle founded Mountain Man Brewing Company in 1925 in West Virginia and is still owned and operated by his family and commands among the highest brand loyalty rates of any beer brand. Mountain Man Brewing Company is considering an expansion of its product line due to declining revenues. The family owned beer producer has built a strong brand around its prize product, Mountain Man Lager, over its last 70+ years of operation. Due to its highly valued brand, the organization is particularly

Unit 8 Study Guide Free Essays

Unit 8 Study Guide 1. How many liters of blood does the average adult have? 5 Liters 2. What are the components of blood? Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma. We will write a custom essay sample on Unit 8 Study Guide or any similar topic only for you Order Now 3. What does the hematocrit measure? The number of cells or volume. 4. What percentage of blood is cells? 45% 5. What percentage of blood is made of plasma? 55% 6. What do erythrocytes look like and what is their function? Erythrocytes are biconcave disks that are 7. 5 micrometers. They have no nucleus, even after they have matured and they are composed of one third hemoglobin. They function as a transportation system for gas. . How do mature erythrocytes differ from immature ones? They lack a nucleus when they mature 8. What is a normal RBC Count? 4,600,000/cubic centimeter 9. What makes blood red? Hemoglobin 10. How long does the average RBC live? 120 days 11. What hormone controls the rate of rbc synthesis? Erythropoietin 12. What element is part of a red blood cell? Iron 13. What is sickle-cell anemia and what is its cause? Sickle-cell anemia is a disorder in the red blood cells which reduces the oxygen in the blood and results in the RBC’s being crescent shaped. 14. What are the causes of Anemia The causes of Anemia include a lack of enough RBC’s, including iron deficiency, B complex deficiency, erythropoietin deficiency, or too many RBC’s destroyed, which includes sickle cell anemia, sickle train, thallasemias (Alpha hemoglobin chain, beta hemoglobin chain, small RBC’s. ) 15. What is the difference between sickle cell anemia and sickle trait? It is possible for a person to have a mixture of normal and bad hemoglobin in red blood cells without having sickle cell disease. This condition is â€Å"sickle cell train† in which people have enough of the normal hemoglobin in their red blood cells to prevent them from becoming sickle haped, causing sickle cell anemia. 16. What percentage of white blood cells are eosinophils? 1-3% 17. What is a Lymphocyte? A Lymphocyte is a small, round long lived agranulocyte that is composed of 25-33% of white blood cells. Its function is to attack antigens. 18. What is a chemical that stimulates cells to produce antibod ies? Antigen 19. What percent of blood is lymphocytes 25-33% of the blood 20. What is a normal white Blood Cell Count? 5,000-10,000 White blood cells 21. What does a rise in WBCS indicate? A decrease? A rise indicates an infection such as leukocytosis and a decrease, or leucopenia, may be a sign of viral infections. 22. What is a normal WBC differential? 4,500-10,000 23. What is pus? It is made up of leukocytes, bacteria, and damaged body cells. 24. What do elevated monocytes indicate? They could indicate an infection 25. What is Diapedesis? It allows WBC’s to leave circulation 26. What is leukemia? It is a type of cancer that begins in the tissue that forms blood. Leukemia patients bleed because of platelet deficiency. 27. What is the function of fibrinogen? It helps stop bleeding by helping blood clots to form. It is converted into fibrin during blood coagulation. 28. What are 3 Lipoprotein molecules? VLDL – triglycerides LDL – cholesterol HDL – high protein 29. What is agglutination? Agglutination is a clumping together of bacteria or red cells when held together by antibodies, or agglutinins. 30. What keeps blood from clotting? Anticoagulants are what prevent the clotting of blood. 31. What is fibrinogen? Fibrinogen is a protein that the liver produces which helps stop bleeding by helping to form blood clots. 32. What is a globulin? A globulin is a plasma protein which transports lipids and fat-soluble vitamins in the blood and helps to produce antibodies. 33. What are the major ABO groups? A, B, AB, and O blood types 34. What are antigens and antibodies associated with each blood group? Type A blood contains the antigen A and Anti B antibodies, type B blood contains antigen B and Anti A antibodies, type AB has antigens A and B and no antibodies, and type O has no antigens and Anti A and B antibodies. 35. What blood type is universal donor? Universal recipient? Type O is the universal blood donor and type AB is the universal recipient. 6. What is the Rh factor and why is it significant? The Rh factor is an antigen that can be found in the red blood cells of most people. People with Rh factor are considered Rh positive and those who do not are considered Rh negative. Rh negative people are unable to be transfused with positive blood once they are exposed to it. A Rh negative mother is able to develop antibodies t o donate to her Rh positive child. Blood which is used in transfusions must match donors for Rh status and ABO blood group. Rh- patients will develop anemia if they are given Rh+ blood. How to cite Unit 8 Study Guide, Essay examples

Managing Human Resources Work Environment Issues

Question: How would you ensure the work environment issues Gilbert identifies are appropriately considered in a performance management system you designed for your organization? Answer: According to Tom Gilberts BEM, level of performance of any individual employee entirely depends on the motivation, ability and work environment. This is the reason; Gilbert says performance is f (M x A x E); Where, M = motivation; A = Ability and E = Environment Therefore, it is become clear that in order to attain high performance level in the work place, organization irrespective of the industry requires maintaining all three aspects appropriately (Cascio, 2012). However, Gilberts also identified two major issues that adversely affect the performance level, such as: Work environment or system aspects; and Person aspects It is fact that the above to aspects largely influence the on job behavior, which ultimately affects the performance. Therefore, being a HR manager, there is requiring identifying solutions to these two issues while implementing a performance management system. According to Gilbert BEM, performance management system of an organization largely depends on employee motivation (Bach and Edwards, 2013). Motivation is considered as the outside factor which is caused by increasing the demand of customers for the particular product. To ensure that this factor will not affect further; organization should try to maintain their customers demand. If the demand of customer for any product is increased then organization should try to increase their productivity (Cascio, 2012). Further, information, instrumentation along with motivation factor largely affects the performance management of organization. Information affects the performance management of the organization as suppose someone from inside the organization spread outside confidential information (Jorgenson, Ho and Stiroh, 2005). So according to Gilbert BEM information of the organization should be secure and safe. According to Gilbert GEM instrumentation is when organization to reduce their recruitment expenditure tries to make their present employees work more i.e. extra work without any extra pay which decrease quality of work. Motivation factor can affect the performance management of organization if employees are paid insufficient rewards or pay for their work. To motivate employees work better organization should decided pay scale structure and reward as per their work (Cascio, 2012). The job factor in organization revolves around information and instrumental factor. To ensure that instrumental factor do not affect the performance management organization should try to maintain positive work environment, culture inside the organization. According to Gilbert BEM organizational and job factor are considered as the inside factor in performance management process (Cascio, 2012). References Bach, S. and Edwards, M. (2013).Managing human resources. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley. Cascio, W (2012) Managing Human Resources, Productivity, Quality of Work Life, Profit Editor: Wayne F. Cascio (9th Edition) Jorgenson, D., Ho, M. and Stiroh, K. (2005).Productivity. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

America and its Past war economy essays

America and its Past war economy essays There is very little doubt that a true war is one of the most economically sound events in which a government could participate. War is good for business. Excluding the enormous cost of life and other social and political ramifications, war is one of the best things that can happen to a society. Both Malthaus and Marx argue that capitalist societies require war to survive and expand. Throughout history there are many examples of how wars have stimulated economies and created new avenues of development for industry. In fact much of the development of countries such as the United States, happened during and directly after wars. Erik Janeway insists that War had been the direct and immediate cause of Americas cycles of expansion. War has become an increasingly good opportunity for businesses and government. This was particularly so after the employment of Keynes economic theories in World War Two. Keynes suggested that in order to stimulate an economy, there must be an increase in deficits. After this increase in deficits, more and more employment will be created, spending will increase and the wealth and more importantly industry of the country will increase. This is actually the basic model of a wartime economy. As soon as a government becomes aware of a conflict or a threat to national security, it begins to allocate large amounts of money to weapons and other defence measurements. Demand for weaponry and defence machinery is usually greater than peacetime arms industry can cope with, and expansion of industry occurs, and naturally the rate of unemployment drops. There is also room for technological development, as the government is evidently eager to create newer, more technologically advanced weaponry that will destroy the enemy. With so much extra spending, wartime economies begin to boom. More people are in employment, not only through industry expansion but also throu...

buy custom Cyber Bullying essay

buy custom Cyber Bullying essay Crisis intervention refers to emergency psychological attention aimed at assisting individuals in a crisis condition to reinstate balance to their bio-psychosocial operation and reduce chances of psychological trauma (James Gilliland, 2001). Crisis can be defined as an individual's perception of an incident or circumstance(s) as unendurable to the extent of surpassing the individuals current ability and coping mechanisms. The most important reason for crisis intervention is to increase an individuals stability. Crisis intervention arises spontaneously and in diverse settings (Jace, 2011). Communal or general trauma can happen in various settings and usually affects a big group or community. The prime concern of the counselor in these types of crises is to gauge peoples consciousness of resources, such as places where their basic needs for survival can be met (Myers, McCaw Hemphill, 2011). Ways in which people respond to trauma, include physical, emotional, and behavioral. Physical responses include fainting, sweating, increased heartbeat, shock, fatigue, tremors, headache, weakness, and dizziness. Emotional responses comprise depression, panic, anxiety, helplessness, irritability, anger, fear, hopelessness, guilt, and denial (Hunter, 2012). When evaluating behavior, some basic responses to crisis include eating and eating difficulties, conflicts with others, sleeplessness, pulling out from social sites, and lack of interest in social activities. Online bullying, also referred to as cyber bullying, has been on the rise all over the world due to advances in technology and increased Internet accessibility. Cyber bullying presently poses grave danger to an increasingly large percentage of people. Cybercrime and cyber bullying have reached crisis proportions, and therefore there is a need for immediate intervention (Jace, 2011). Crisis Intervention for Cyber-Bullying Literature Review Cyber bullying occurs when people use cellular phones, the Internet, and/or other devices to post or send images and/or texts messages with the intention of embarrassing or hurting others (Hunter, 2012: Kowalski, Limber Agatston, 2008). There are several ways of countering cyber bullying and being cyber-safe. This vice afflicts different age groups, but is more rampant among teenagers and working class individuals. Teenagers practicing cyber bullying impersonate others to trick their peers into revealing their private information. Other cyber bullies post pictures without their victims' consent (Kowalski, Limber Agatston, 2008). Cyber bullying can basically refer to sending e-mails to someone who has rejected contacts with the sender, which may also include hate speech, sexual remarks, threats and posting false information, such as facts intended to humiliate the victim (Hunter, 2012). Cyber bullies can sometimes reveal victims' personal information, which may include real name, school, workplace, and contacts at forums or website, or assuming the victims identity in order to publish insulting or ridiculing materials. Some cyber bullies may send bullying and threatening emails to their victims, while others may publish gossip or rumors and mobilize others bullies to team up on the target (Kowalski, Limber Agatston, 2008). In addition, boys tend to engage in malicious online activities much earlier than girls of the same age. However, as they grow up, girls are more likely to engage in cyber-bullying than boys of their age. Regardless of the sex, the bullys purpose is to deliberately intimidate humiliate, an noy, or threaten individuals online. This kind of bullying transpires through websites, text messaging, and posts to blogs. Cyber Bullying Types Flaming is fighting online via electronic messages by using obscene and vulgar language. Mostly, this happens when teenagers want to tease one another either after having a disagreement or just out of malice. Harassment involves continuously sending rude, abusive, and offensive messages intended to irritate the victim of cyber-bullying (Kowalski, Limber Agatston, 2008). Cyber stalking entails threatening another person and intimidating them through sending messages repeatedly. This scares the victim of a cyber bully, as the threats make him/her fear for his life. Denigration involves circulating cruel and unpleasant gossip and/or rumors concerning a person with an intention to destroy his/her reputation and damage his/her friendship with other people, as they may perceive him to be the bad person. Impersonation involves a cyber bully posing as another person and using that persons identity to send or post unscrupulous materials and messages online. These are intended to make the person appear bad, get the person in trouble or damage the person's reputation (Hunter, 2012). Outing and trickery entails tricking a person into revealing his/her unpleasant secrets or embarrassing experiences. Then a cyber-bully shares the secrets and humiliating information online to demean a person's reputation. Exclusion involves intentional oppression of someone through exclusion from very important online group lists. This leads to lack of vital information, such as work-related or requiring immediate action, that the person needed to receive. Current Cyber Bullying Programs and Responses Education of Children One major intervention technique is to let everyone know what cyber bullying means. This means that all members of the society starting from the children to the adults need to be educated about cyber bullying and informed that all actions irrespective of where and how it perpetuated have consequences (McQuade, Colt Meyer, 2009). They should also be made to understand that cyber bullying is wrong and hurts the victims. And if they have the misfortune of becoming victims, they need to understand that they are being manipulated by bullies. It is equally important to note that cyber bullies often become victims of cyber bullying, hence they should care about others and defend what is right. Schools Educators can appeal to teenagers and youths to enter into an internet safety greement, whereby they pledge they will not cyber-bully or give their personal details even to their friends, willingly or even under duress. This can ensure that cyber-bullying is minimized, since those involved in it may fear the consequences of the act, while those who do not fear may not get personal detail of those they want to victimize. Educators can also institute acceptable Internet use and anti-cyber bullying policies in school (Shariff, 2008). These policies will assist in guarding against misuse of technology and help to effectively and efficiently monitor the Internet. Schools should emphasize the value of kindness and responsiveness, as well as being respectful so that the students can understand that other people need to be treated with respect and do not deserve to be cyber-bullied (Shariff, 2008). Enhancing empathetic awareness will make young people be always mindful of the other person, and put themselves in other person's place in case he/she becomes the victim of cyber bullying. This way the person may see the need to do the same to another person, as he already knows what it is like to be a victim (Myers, McCaw Hemphill, 2011). Developing effective and efficient problem-solving skills among young people of the same age who initiate cyber bullying and those who do it for the sake of revenge will help solve their differences effectively before they get out of hand (Shariff, 2008). Empowerment of onlookers is another strategy whereby bystanders are empowered with preventive measures to be able to respond to cyber-bullying. They are also empowered with effective counter-measures to prevent it. Parents This is another intervention that involves parents discussing the cyber bullying menace with their children.(McQuade, Colt Meyer, 2009). This can be done by supervising and increasing effective monitoring of Internet use by the children. Parents need to know that since more adults supervise teenagers' activities, more children hide their use of the Internet. This means that the monitoring strategies need to be made into social norms, as far as teenagers' online activities are concerned. The social norms will install the values and standards of operation expected of every child and community member (McQuade, Colt Meyer, 2009). The parents also need to empower the cyber bully victim with relevant knowledge on how to prevent, respond, and discourage bullying activities among teenagers. Methods that may be employed to prevent bullying include non-disclosure of personal information, staying offline for those who are already victims, blocking communication with the bully by showing victi ms how to bar the bullys messages, deleting messages before reading them (Carpenter Ferguson, 2009). Parents should establish rules governing the use of the Internet by their children, as well as clearly stipulate consequences in case of non-compliance (McQuade, Colt Meyer, 2009). This will discourage the use of the Internet for perpetuating the vice. Parents should also instruct teenagers not to seek revenge on a cyber-bully, since revenge worsens the situation and perpetuates the crisis. Equally, teenagers need to know that there is no difference between them and cyber bullies, in case they resort to revenge. Instead of revenge, teenagers need to be advised to report the bullying cases to Internet service providers (ISPs) and website administrators. These groups are better placed to regulate some of the bullys Internet abilities (Carpenter Ferguson, 2009). Another intervention strategy to curb cyber bullying is to keep passwords secret from everyone. If carelessly handled, passwords help bullies gain entry into personal accounts, thus making the owners vulnerable to cybercrime and bullying (Jace, 2011). To avoid depression, teenagers need to be encouraged to report becoming victims of cyber bullying to be advised on how to respond. This intervention is meant to give assistance before it is too late. It has also been realized that most teenagers fear reporting the incidences of cyber bullying for fear of their Internet access being restricted by their parents (Jace, 2011). It is also important to assist victims of cyber bullying in maintaining records of bullying incidents. This is absolutely essential when the situation requires intervention of law enforcement agencies, such as the police, especially when it entails, harassment or recurrent cyber-attacks (Netce.com, 2011). This is necessary to safeguard victims of cyber bullying because some incidents may end violently. Community leaders may also organize cyber safety forums for community members, including students, educators, parents, local technology companies, local law enforcement agencies, and school officials. Such forums will teach the safe use of the Internet, give information to parents, law enforcement officers and educators on how teenagers use the Internet, as well as websites teenagers visit regularly, provide information on procedures of contacting site administrators and ISPs in case cyber bullying takes place, and circumstances under which to contact law enforcement agencies regarding a cyber bullying situation (Netce.com, 2011). Community leaders also need to work with institutions' technology departments to ensure that teenagers are cyber-safe. This is because cyber bullying has become a crisis that needs serious intervention (James Gilliland, 2001). Intervention after the Bullying Victims of cyber bullying need to provide evidence that can be used for prosecution. Threat assessment also needs to be done if cyber bullying causes substantial damage, spawns violent behavior or elicits suicide concerns from the victim. The assessment will help determine the best response options, such as involving law enforcement officers, school disciplinary action or psychological counseling to reduce the impacts among victims and perpetrators (Jace, 2011). The intervention also involves identification of the perpetrators through assessment of the validity of a persons identity, offering support to the victim, counseling mediation and providing guidance on how to respond to the impact. Crisis Intervention for Cyber Bullying Intervention in the cyber bullying crisis can be made through community action that involves all members of the society (James Gilliland, 2001). Cyber safety should be a priority for everybody with Internet access, because it has become a major source of information and networking platform. However, this is a difficult subject to address, since people have the right to privacy and freedom of speech. Nevertheless, community members, including educators, community leaders, and law enforcement agencies, can help prevent cyber bullying and promote safe and accountable use of the Internet through implementing the following strategies (Carpenter Ferguson, 2009). Disciplinary Intervention Disciplinary intervention involves intervening in the cyber-bullying crisis by using detention, suspension, and expulsion. As part of disciplinary intervention strategy, detention is mostly enforced by the police when bullying threatens the life of the victim (Jace, 2011: Ncpc.org). The perpetrator in this case is detained by the police to reduce the risk as investigation is carried out. Suspension and expulsion mostly affect teenagers in school settings, but can also impact working class individuals. These disciplinary measures are taken after a proof of bullying has been obtained. The proof is to be based on the enforceable anti-cyber bullying policy stipulated by the school to protect the victim and improve safety (Myers, McCaw Hemphill, 2011). It also involves the use of law enforcement agencies if bullying entails harassing and threatening the lives of victims. To ensure best intervention results law enforcers and school administrators must be fully informed on the current cybe r safety issues and legislations, including learning about the technology and platforms teenagers use to perpetrate bullying, as well as the social networking sites frequented (Netce.com, 2011). To fully discipline perpetrators, enforcers also need to determine the best protocol to follow in order to contact social networking site administrators to remove or block the profiles of cyber bullying individuals. Therapeutic Intervention This involves outside counseling of both victims and perpetrators of cyber bullying on how to respond and prevent involvement in the vice. Therapeutic intervention is implemented through the PEAS Program that involves psychological, educational, and social responses. 1. P-Psychological This intervention program involves referral of the bullying victims to the professional psychologists for outside counseling to equip the victims with skills necessary to counter bullying practices. This also helps safeguard cyber bullying victims against psychosocial problems, such as withdrawal and depression among others. Such counseling is also offered through family support centers and school counseling programs to help teenagers avoid getting engaged in cyber bullying (Ncpc.org). There are also anger management groups that help cyber bullying victims control their anger, embrace apology technique and impact statement that promotes peaceful coexistence between their peers (Carpenter Ferguson, 2009). This intervention mechanism also teaches the youth peer mediation and conflict resolution techniques that can be used by both cyber bullies and their victims to solve their differencse without causing injuries to themselves. Finally, teenagers are advised to utilize the safe box tec hnique while being online to avoid exposing their information to potential bullies and other cybercrime perpetrators (Ncpc.org). 2. E-Educational This strategy involves curriculum infusion into training programs that sensitize students against cyber bullying. This can be done through reviewing documentaries, previous reports on the menace, encouraging reciting poems, short stories and songs that denounce cyber bullying and discussing the impacts of the bullying crisis. Institutions can also utilize social studies by reviewing cyber bullying cases, distinguishing uses and misuses of technology, developing anti-cyber bullying posters, as well as promoting the use of authentic websites (Netce.com, 2011). The educational strategy also involves peer-matching, whereby teenagers from lower and higher grades are combined to improve cohesiveness. It also involves promoting school assemblies. Such assemblies may include small groups of high school students discussing the menace and ways of preventing it, the impacts of cyber bullying or being cyber bullied, having professionals like lawyers highlight possible legal consequences of cyber bullying, or getting former cyber bullies to outline the consequences of their actions (Ncpc.org). This can be a workable intervention strategy to avert the current cyber bullying crisis. The strategy should also involve parents intervention, as well as school staff assessment and evaluation. 3. S-Social This intervention strategy uses extracurricular activities, such as art contests among students of different grades to build cohesiveness (Jace, 2011). School administrations may also introduce a dress code policy that minimizes comparison among teenagers, which is usually a source of bullying. Conclusion Crisis intervention for cyber bullying involves emergency psychological attention aimed at assisting individuals experiencing cyber bullying in reinstating balance to their bio-psychosocial operation and reducing chances of psychological trauma. Cyber bullying occurs when people use cellular phones, the Internet and/or other devices to post or send images and/or texts messages with an intention of embarrassing or hurting others (Netce.com, 2011). This practice has been promoted by the advancements in technology to the extent that many people, including school going children, enjoy high-speed Internet access via cellular phones in the comfort of their own homes. Currently rampant among young people, cyber bullying traumatizes most victims, and therefore, requires urgent measures to curb the menace on a global scale. The commonly experienced cyber bullying types include flaming, harassment, cyber stalking, denigration, impersonation, trickery, and exclusion (Netce.com, 2011). Several i ntervention strategies can be used to stop cyber bullying and enhance cyber safety. It requires involvement of parents, teachers and community members to advise teenagers against cyber bullying practices, The strategies should also focus on getting law enforcement agencies to implement disciplinary measures. Other intervention measures involve the implementation of the PEAS program that involves psychological, educational and social intervention. Buy custom Cyber Bullying essay

INCA EMPIRE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

INCA EMPIRE - Essay Example This made Pizarro have a better and more experienced knowledge to draw and to set out from Panama in 1530 to conquer the Incans. This also made the Spanish victorious in the war (Christine, 2004). Seasoned conquistadors who joined the fight on the side of the Spaniards made Pizarro and his troops outwit the Incans. The seasoned conquistadors were Hernando De Soto, who had earlier explored Florida and his brother. This expedition conquered and recruited allies as they entered deeper in the Inca Empire. Spaniards introduced in the war while the Incas were already in war, and this was a great advantage to Pizarro and his expedition. It slowed communication among the Incas and made the Spaniards recruit more allies who conquered mercilessly towards the central government (Christine, 2004). The capture of Atahualpa Emperor was also a significant boost for the Spaniards in conquering the Incas as it increased confusion among the Incas, which reduced the response of the Incas as they attacked the Incan empire. The capture of the Emperor was because of the Spaniards using more advanced firearms, cannons and horses as compared to the Incas who used spears and slings that were of no match with the Spaniards weapons (Christine, 2004). Other disasters also affected the Incas and made them unable to fight effectively with the Spaniards. Some of the disasters were inferior technology and diseases as it was claimed that diseases alone killed 90% of the Incas. The Spaniards momentum and beliefs made them conquer the Incas, as they believed it was their mandate to dismantle and change the Incas and anyone they came across to Christianity (Christine, 2004). The approach of Pizarro and his allies to the Incan emperor was a surprise, and that made them attach the Incas fast before the Incas could realize and attack back. Sending Indians first to sweep

Manufacturing Systems and Quality Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Manufacturing Systems and Quality - Coursework Example There is no need to minimize quality with the lean manufacturing techniques– the cuts are due to the result of achieving better and more efficient means of accomplishing the same function. To achieve the efficiencies, the lean manufacturing uses a customer-value focus. This approach focusses on the price the customer is willing to pay for a particular product. The customers only pay when their needs are met. They should not pay for faulty products, or for the additional costs of having large inventories. The customer should not pay for the company’s wastes. a. Over-production–The quantity of production should be in response to the market demands. Care should be taken to ensure that no extra products are produced. Excessive production results into wastes. 1. Workforce  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ This is to do with the worker’s performance. The managers should put strategies to ensure that workers give their best. This should be achieved through motivation and other relevant strategies. Just-in-Time manufacturing technique is to do with having the right material at the right time, in the right amount, and in the right place. Adopting the principles of Just-in-Time improves the competiveness of a manufacturing plant through te reduction, quality improvement, production efficiency. Total Quality Management is a management technique that aims to integrate all the organizational tasks, such as finance, marketing, design, production, engineering, and production. It focuses on the organizational objectives and customer’s needs. Total Quality Management views a company or an organization as a combination of processes. It emphasizes that a company must continuously improve the processes by the experiences and knowledge of the employees. Total Production Maintenance is defined as a system of improving and maintaining quality systems and the integrity of production through

Software Design Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Software Design - Essay Example is the procedure by which a developer creates a specification of a software objects, anticipated to accomplish objectives, using a set of available components and theme to constraints (Budgen 2003). The Design recognizes the how of the system. It comprises tradeoff analysis based on system requirements. Design quality concerns attributes applicable to ensure sustainability of the system. The attributes analyzed in this paper are concerned with the sustainability of the design. Quality features are similarly applicable to function-based and object-based designs (Rosenblatt 2014). The attributes includes cohesion, adaptability, coupling, understandability and traceability. Cohesion is an assessment of how adequately a component interface within the system. A component should execute a single consistent entity or utility. This attribute is a desirable design constituent attribute as when an alteration has to be completed. It is restricted in a distinct cohesive component. There are a number of levels of cohesion that have been identified; though, not necessary for this paper. This design attributes is not well illustrated (Page-Jones 1999). Experts have encountered a challenge in classifying this attribute as a design component. Inheriting attributes within the design component from super classes makes cohesion as a design attribute weak. In system design, component can be understood when the super-classes also the component are examined. Coupling is a measure of stability or strength of inter-connection among systems components. When it is loosely done then, the component alterations are unlikely to affect other components. Control information or shared variables exchange lead to tight coupling. Loose coupling is achievable when state decentralization (as in objects) is executed and component interfacing through parameters or message passing (Tsui et al. 2014). Coupling allows for inheritance of classes thus facilitate ease of usage as a design attribute in

Passing Of The UK 1832 Reform Act

Passing Of The UK 1832 Reform Act The passing of the 1832 Reform Act (also knows as the Great Reform Act) and the consequent extension of the franchise was due to the culmination of several factors. It did not, in itself, make a great difference at the time but it certainly had an undeniable effect on what was to follow. It was rather the beginning of the satisfaction for reform; a way of opening the way for legislation that went further, than an achievement of this aim. Many MPs who voted for it saw it rather as a way of preventing further future change and avoiding revolution. At the time, only the land-owning class could vote. They represented areas of land as opposed to the actual people within. The lower classes were considered an uneducated rabble; they were seen to be unable to be trusted. Property and wealth determined who was able to vote. This essay will examine how the Act came to be passed and also the ways in which its passing affected British politics in the years to come. The issue of Catholic emancipation was arguably a factor in paving the way for the ability to reform. The Conservative government of the time was deeply against the issue of Catholic emancipation; ideologically, it was concerned with the preservation of tradition. As Robert Blake commented; The Tory party never tired of proclaiming its determination to uphold the traditional institutions of the United Kingdom, the monarchy, the House of Lords and the Protestant establishment, both its property and its privileges.  [1]   This became a problematic position. William Vesey Fitzgerald was obliged to resign as MP and stand for re-election after entering into the position President of the Board of Trade. Daniel O Connell ran against him for the seat of County Clare, and won. Due to his being a Roman Catholic, he could not actually serve if elected. Therefore, the Conservative government had a problem; the opposition of Catholic emancipation was a point of unity for the Tory Party. On the other hand, the Catholic Association could cause significant disruption if no action was taken. Catholic emancipation caused a severe split within the Tory party. It convinced many ultra-Tories to support reform. Eric J. Evans comments that it was in fact an ultra-Tory, the Marquis of Blandford, as opposed to a radical that called for reform regarding the issue of rotten boroughs- he called for the seats of rotten boroughs to be given to larger towns, among other reformations. The ultra-Tories believed that the increased voters would lend support to their opposition of Catholic emancipation.  [2]   Economic conditions also contributed to a desire for reform. The economy had largely been dependent on the war- when Britain went to war against France in 1793. When the war ended in 1815, the country entered into an economic depression due to the lack of demand in peacetime for that which the country had been producing during wartime. In 1829, the harvest failed and resultantly, food prices increased. Radicals used this as an opportunity; William Lovett and Henry Hetherington formed the National Union of the Working classes in April, 1831. The goal was suffrage for all adult males and it campaigned for that.  [3]   A new middle class emerged in England as a result of the Industrial Revolution- this was composed of factory owners and entrepreneurs. This new middle class believed, justifiably, that their inability to vote was unfair as they were creating wealth. Middle class desire for increased representation in the political system was leading to a greater support for reform on their part, and this in turn lead to increased collaboration with the working class. The middle class felt that they deserved more representation in parliament than they currently possessed; industry and commerce were becoming more important and legislation such as the Corn Laws was in the interest of the aristocracy, which controlled parliament, as opposed to that of the middle class. Hence, they desired greater political power in order to do something about this. In 1830, Thomas Attwood formed the Birmingham Political Union due to the awful economic conditions. He founded a General Political Union between the Lower and Middle Classes of the People'.  [4]  Attwoods Union was not the only one of its kind; the creation of others followed in various forms. Their activities -political rallies which were well-attended and organised- indicated that the middle class did indeed desire reform and was prepared to work towards such a goal. The effect of the economic distress; the political unions and the French revolution was to prove to parliament that reform was an unavoidable issue, lest a revolution occur. MP Thomas McAulay said, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦I support this measure, because I am sure that it is our best security against a revolutionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ã‚  [5]   Many politicians came to view reform in this manner; as a means of preventing revolution and greater change to the system at a later point. The reform act, once passed, meant that more populated areas received a more proportional representation. It changed the areas represented by MPs to better reflect the changes in population distribution caused by industrialisation. Middle class males were enfranchised; all householders paying a yearly rental of  £10 and, if they had been resident for a year, lodgers paying  £10 received the vote. This, however, meant that the working class was excluded from the vote. Those living in cities were still not adequately represented and MPs still did not receive a salary- they also had to own land to be able to stand. This brought to an end the alliance between the middle class and the working class. The working class was resentful of this; they were aware that without their pressure, the government would not have felt such an urgent need to reform. Chartism was a movement born of working class resentment at their exclusion from the newly expanded franchise. There were two types; moral force and physical force Chartism. The principle of moral force Chartism was that demonstrating that the working class was respectable and trustworthy (e.g. Chartist churches) was the way to achieve their goals. In contrast, physical force Chartism was the idea of a more forceful, direct manner. That is not to say there were two distinct groups; most viewed the physical force concept as a last resort. The Peoples Charter consisted of six demands: * Institution of a secret ballot. * General elections be held annually. * Members of Parliament not be required to own property. * MPs be paid a salary. * Electoral districts of equal size. * Universal male suffrage. The first meeting specifically organised for Chartism  [6]  took place on Kerstal Moor on 24 September. The message was that universal suffrage, as opposed to direct action, would achieve their aims. Chartism was closely linked to the present state of the economy; if the economy was doing well then demand was low. If it was doing badly, demand was high. Chartism did not last; its high point could be said to be 1848. After a meeting on Kensington common on the 10 April of that year, the Chartists presented a petition to parliament. The procession to bring the petition to the House of Commons was banned, some of the upper class having come to believe the Chartists intended revolution. Many of the signatures on the petition itself were later found to be forgeries. There was still, of course, a demand for reform after the act of 1832. The Great Act did not, in fact, do much to expand the electorate at all. However, it created a precedent- it could be said to have opened the door for further reform. In 1851, The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations took place. Thomas Cook took 165,000 people to attend it. There was a fear that the working class would damage/cause trouble in the city, but the concerns proved to be unfounded. In reality, they demonstrated interest and were peaceful. There was a growth in public libraries and such services- this can be traced from the principles of moral force Chartism. By the 1860s, the general feeling was that the working class had demonstrated sufficient respectability to gain the vote. However, the Liberal/Whig party was divided over the extent to which reform should go. Elements of the aristocracy were unsure, whereas radical members were very keen. The split of the Conservative party had a llowed the Whigs to come in. Disraeli desired to lead the party into power once more; he pushed through reform far more radical than the Liberals had envisioned in an effort to win popular support- as a result, the working class became the majority. This was the 1867 reform act, and enfranchised the urban working class. His was a pragmatic move; he was taking advantage of the Liberals split, and trying to demonstrate the Conservatives had the ability to lead. The factors leading to the passing of the 1832 Reform Act were myriad; for example, the French revolution inspired radicals, the middle class resented their exclusion despite their creation of wealth and also the restriction on the growth of industry and the working class desired power in order to improve their quality of life. However, the effects of it were very limited. It was still deeply restrictive; the working class still did not possess the vote after it. It was this very fact that led to the creation of movements such as Chartism; the reform act set a precedent and the working class campaigned in earnest for universal male suffrage.

Community Service and Volunteering Essay -- Contribution to My Communit

â€Å"Volunteers are not paid; not because they are worthless, but because they are priceless.† - Sherry Anderson (Volunteering Quotes: Finest Quotes). On average, when people think about community service, they assume that volunteering is just ‘hours we need to be able to graduate’ and that is it. Community service is more than just hours; community service is based on the acts performed by someone with the purpose of helping or bringing benefits to his or her community. People frequently compare community service as a punishment since it is often offered to small-time offenders as an alternative to fines or jail time. However, community service is the vital force to many communities since they depend on the service made by the volunteers to be able to grow (The Importance of Volunteers). Nowadays, the words â€Å"community service† and â€Å"volunteering† are being used constantly. People tend to forget or misunderstand the real meaning or significance of volunteering. By exploring the history and significance of volunteering in the United States, people can develop a culture of volunteering and enric h their lives and make a positive social contribution. Being a volunteer means that, that person is giving his or her time and skills to help their own community and those in needs, whether in a service, project or organization. People cannot confuse volunteering with a regular job since volunteers are not paid, and they just use their gratis time to help others, without expecting something in return (Student Essay on The Importance of Community Service). We persistently see community service and volunteering as a waste of time and unproductive act, but we need to take into account the seriousness these two topics ... ...ans, Book Summaries and More. Web. 03 Oct. 2011. . "The Importance of Volunteers." The Importance of Volunteers. Web. 14 Dec. 2011. "Volunteer Appreciation Quotes, Sayings of Thanks for Volunteering." The Quote Garden - Quotes, Sayings, Quotations, Verses. Web. 14 Dec. 2011. . "Volunteering." KidsHealth - the Web's Most Visited Site about Children's Health. Web. 05 Dec. 2011. . "Volunteering Quotes :: Finest Quotes." Source for Famous Quotes, Inspirational Quotes & Sayings :: Finest Quotes. Web. 05 Dec. 2011. . "What Is Volunteering." Kids’ Why Questions. Web. 05 Dec. 2011. .

Why There We Have Winners and Losers in the Automotive Industry

One reasons that has exposed some automobile companies to severe vagaries of recession while sparing others is the existence of structural differences between the so called auto â€Å"transplants† or foreign auto mobile manufacturing in the United States and the major automobile companies incorporated and domiciled in the United States i. e. General Motors, Chrysler, Ford and the like.The so called ‘transplants’ better represented by Toyota, Hyundai and the like are structured in such a way that they can access credit from their mother countries most of which for instance were not severely affected by the recent recession if compared with the United States (Ohno, 1988). Their deep pocket and this ready pool of credit from their mother countries made them less susceptible to the vagaries of financial meltdown. Another factor that has prejudiced some automakers while favoring others is what analysts have called bad practices of the Big Three United States automakers .These ‘bad’ practices are the ones that are responsible for the big cost differentials that have existed for some time now between them and the ‘transplant’. Another tragedy that has benefited the transplants at the expense of the Big Three is the high prices of automobile fuels that have been occasioned by the recession (Ohno, 1988). In this regard the Big Three US automakers known for their SUVs and Pickup Trucks which normally consume more fuel have found themselves uncompetitive due to the avoidance of fuel guzzlers in the United States due to the high oil prices and reduced disposable income due to inflation.Most of those who have avoided these fuel guzzlers have migrated to the cheaper and more fuel efficient car made from the so called transplant i. e. Toyota, Hyundai, et al. The labor costs have also overwhelmed the Big Three US automakers more than others from foreign countries manufacturing in the United States (McCracken, 2006). This is due to t he fact that their workers are unionized and therefore able to press for high salaries while their non-unionized counterparts in the so called transplants do not have such powers (McCracken, 2006).Importance of the New Product Development for Corporation In regard to Toyota’s New Product Development Process with the launch of the Prius The development of new product whether in form of new innovations, new applications or even completely new goods is a necessary component in business because it enhances the viability of the company. By developing new product the company is able to make a mark in the industry which is one of the best survival strategy that today’s companies have perfected in their bid to withstand cutthroat competition that characterize today’s business environment.The importance of continuously and consistently developing new product in today’s business world is better captured in the statement â€Å"innovate or die† which has of la te become a popular catchphrase adopted by both small and large corporate bodies in reference to increasingly knowledgeable consumer demand for the latest and finest products. One of the companies that have embraced the idea of developing new products in an effort to remain competitive while still providing their customers with the newest and finest goods in the respective market is Toyota Corporation.Toyota which is the second largest automaker globally realizes that in order to maintain its brand visibility as a top automaker worldwide it has keep on innovating and coming up with new and more superior models (McCracken, 2006). All these Toyota models that have been launched in succession by Toyota Corporation are informed by this strategy. This strategy has been employed by Toyota for a long time now. However the most recent product of Toyota’s innovative product development is Toyota Prius. The development of Toyota Prius is in line with Toyota’s management desire t o develop newer and more superior cars for this century.The superiority of Prius as a new and different product from the other is better demonstrated by its superior features that include more spacious cabin space, relatively higher seat position, aerodynamic exterior, a 20km/little fuel economy, and a relatively small engine placed horizontally with a variable automatic transmission (McCracken, 2006). References Ohno, Taiichi, (1988). Toyota Production System: Beyond Large-Scale Production. New York: Productivity Press McCracken, Jeffrey, (2006). Detroit’s Symbol of Dysfunction: Paying Employees Not to Work. The wall street journal online. 06 March 2006

Identity Thesis Essay

Over the course of history, different theories have been formulated to help explain the complex relationship between the mind and the body. One of the theories elucidating the mind-body relation is dualism—the view that mental states are independent from physical states. Mental states are ones of thinking, feeling, and believing whereas physical states are those outlined by physical and biological sciences. In contrast to dualism, physicalism insists that mental states are somehow physical states. The most straightforward version of physicalism is the identity thesis—the theory that every type of mental state is identical to some type of physical state (Reasons and Responsibility, 285-286). Dualists and physicalists have disputed over the validity of the identity thesis; dualists denying its claim and physicalists defending it. The biggest problem facing physicalists and the identity thesis is the concept of qualia, the phenomenal quality of a mental state (Reasons and Responsibility, 281). Philosopher Frank Jackson offers what he calls the â€Å"Knowledge Argument† for qualia. Jackson’s knowledge argument presents that nonphysical facts can be devised from facts about phenomenal quality. Through the concept of qualia, Jackson’s knowledge argument shows that the identity thesis is false. The identity thesis holds that mental events are simply identical with brain processes—identical in the same manner that sounds are identical with density waves in the air. The thesis bases on the idea that mental states of thought, sensation, and awareness are alike those of physical states (such as those of the brain and central nervous system). An example of identity thesis is that lightning and an electric charge are two of the same thing. In other words, lightning is an electric charge. An advocate of the identity thesis is materialist Peter Carruthers. Carruthers argues that everything (including mental states) exists through physical causes. Carruthers’ argument for the identity thesis can be summarized from the beliefs that some conscious states and events are casually necessary for the occurrence of some physical ones, and that there will be no need to advert to anything other than physical-physical causality in a completed neuro-physiological science. Thus, some conscious states and events are identical with physical brain states and events (Reason and Responsibility, 301-302). However, the concept of qualia refutes the idea of physicalism, and is the foundation of Jackson’s knowledge argument against identity thesis. As a believer of dualism, Jackson uses the concept of qualia to support that the mind and matter are distinct and independent substances capable of existing without the other. Qualia are the subjective, felt qualities of experiences. For example, one may know all the physical properties of the color red and the physics behind why some things are red; however it is qualia that allows one to experience what it is like to actually see red. Jackson constructs his knowledge argument around the ideas of dualism and qualia. To further illustrate Jackson’s argument for qualia (and dualism), the case of Fred and his unique color vision will be presented (Reasons and Responsibility, 298-299). For some reason, Fred has the ability to see two colors where others only see one. His retina is capable of distinguishing between two wavelengths of red in which others familiarizes with only one. He tries to explain the difference between the two reds. However he fails in doing so because others do not comprehend the difference. Therefore it is concluded that Fred can visually see one more color than everyone else. Despite having all the physical information about Fred and his special trait, one cannot know what it actually feels like to see two different types of red. Thus, Jackson believes that the physicalist left something out in the theory of physicalism—the qualia or what it feels like to actually experience something. Consequently, quale explains how dualism is valid and physicalism is incomplete. The existence of knowledge through qualia (mental state) and that of physical facts (physical state) demonstrates the idea of dualism—the view that two fundamental concepts exist. Jackson’s knowledge argument derives mainly from his thought experiment of Mary; the brilliant scientist who has spent her life confined within a black-and-white room and has never seen colors. Mary learns all the physical facts relevant to the mind. She becomes an expert on the neurophysiology of vision and knows all there is to know about color. When Mary is released from her room, she experiences color for the first time. One would think intuitively that her color experiences provide her with knowledge she previously lacked, and that what she learns includes certain facts about what color experiences are like. The facts she learns upon her release cannot be physical facts because she already knew all physical facts before leaving the room. Therefore, the new knowledge comes from the concept of qualia, which indicates that not all facts are physical facts (Reason and Responsibility, 298-299). Thus physicalism is false. Jackson reaches his conclusion that the identity thesis is false by proving that mental states are not physical states. According to the identity thesis, states and processes of the mind are identical to states and processes of the brain. The concept of qualia refutes the validity of the identity thesis by presenting subjective forms of experiences. The knowledge acquired from subjective forms of experiences differs from those of physical knowledge about experiences. Since physicalism requires that all aspects of knowledge are the same, physicalism cannot be sound. Thus the identity thesis must be false. The cases of Fred and Mary show that physicalism doesn’t amount to all knowledge. The summation of Jackson’s knowledge argument can be illustrated by the following: before Mary leaves the room, she knows all the physical facts about color experiences. When Mary leaves the room, she learns new facts about color experiences—facts about what it’s like to see in color. Therefore, there are nonphysical facts about color experiences. Furthermore, the identity thesis is false because Jackson’s knowledge argument reveals that there is something about the experience of color (in Mary’s case) that cannot be captured by the physicalist view. So, physicalism is incomplete. Physicalism lacks the phenomenal quality of the mental state—the ability to experience something regardless of physical knowledge. Qualia and the mental experience can never be achieved from the premises of physicalism and the identity thesis. Thus, the phenomenal quality of experiences cannot be accounted for through physical properties of the brain. In conclusion, the identity thesis is false because nonphysical properties, like phenomenal properties, exist.

Arsenic and Old Lace essays

Arsenic and Old Lace essays When people in town see Martha and Abby Brewster, they only see half of what is truly there. The people of Brooklyn, New York see two elderly sisters who give to charity and do good all around town. Little do these people know that these ladies are sinister sisters, they poison travelers and have their nephew, Teddy, bury them in the basement. The two women have two other nephews, Mortimer and Jonathon, one is engaged and the other is the black sheep of the family. Lots of laughs were thrown into this twisted play that some how keep the sisters lovable. Early in the play the sisters are chatting with the minister of their church about the war. Abby says at one point, It may not be very charitable of me, but Ive almost come to the conclusion that this Mr. Hitler isnt a Christian. (462) Now people may wonder how such sweet old ladies may turn to murder. The twist in the plot is that they do not see it as murder at all and do not hide the fact that they kill people and bury them in the basement. They see their act of murder as an act of charity. Their victims are always old Christian men who have no family and no friends. Weary travelers seek refuge at their house and never leave after one sip of the elderberry wine the twisted sisters mix up themselves. So exactly how do these sisters manage to do these horrible murders? It is simple really, their father was a doctor and had various medicines and powders stored in his laboratory and they borrowed a few of them. At this point in their lives both women are in their late sixties and their father has passed on so they have free access to the lab and its materials. Martha explained the recipe for the poisoned wine as this, Well, dear, for a gallon of elderberry wine I take one teaspoonful of arsenic, then add a half teaspoon of strychnine and then just a pinch of cyanide. (473) After the men were dead their nephew, Teddy who thought he was President ...

Communicable disease Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Communicable disease - Assignment Example A chain of infections is usually made up of 6 causing factors, these are; the infectious agent which are usually the disease causing organisms, the reservoir which is the natural environment the pathogens need for their survival, the portal of exit which is the means by which the pathogens leave the reservoir which is the infected person, the means of transmission which is usually either direct or indirect i.e. physical contact, unprotected sex, the air, or parasites, the portal of entry which is either inhalation, penetration or ingestion, and finally the new host of whom the disease causing pathogens attack. Immunity is the state of having total biological defense to fight disease as well as infections. There are two main types of immunity these are adaptive immunity and innate immunity. Innate immunity is the ability of one’s body to defend itself against infections naturally and it’s a form of body defense one is born with. However, adaptive immunity that is usually subdivided into various categories is a form of immunity that one acquires after weakened disease causing pathogen is introduced into the body making the body develop adapt and develop immunity. In September 2014 onwards, the Center for Disease Control (CDC) as well as other partners have spent countless efforts in investigating reports among children in the USA that have developed sudden weakness in either one of their limbs. MRI scans reveal that children with such symptoms have an inflammation of the grey matter nerve cells that are usually in the spinal cord located in the vertebrate. This infectious disease is Acute Flaccid Myelitis. From the month of August to April this year, CDC has verified reports of more than 118 children in over 34 states including Florida and the county of Miami Dade that have developed the disease. Majority of the children are about 7 years of age and due to the disease have been hospitalized and put

Internet Marketing Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Internet Marketing - Coursework Example It will then advice on the improvements that can be done to increase the effectiveness of social media for prospects, students and alumni engagement and support. The internet, also known as the worldwide web has become increasingly important in today’s world. Different sectors use the internet to do different kinds of things. The most important aspect about the internet is that it has made the world a global village where people in different parts of the world are joined together in real time (Mills, 2011:345). One of the sectors that has used internet in its different aspects is education. The education sector around the world uses the internet for research, administration, and learning and to promote social issues (Ractham & Firpo, 2011). One important aspect of the internet that has been used in education is social media. Brunel Business School has implemented social media in its studies to ensure that it attracts more students even as the world changes, for instance in terms of an increase in tuition fees among other aspects. There are several challenges that Brunel Business School is facing with its current social media adoption/ use that must be addressed to achieve more efficiency. As stated above, Brunel Business School has already implemented social media, for example, Facebook, Twitter and YouTube, as aspects that improve student experiences in the school as well as improving the prospects of the school in attracting other students. Today social media is used to create engagement in classrooms and in online courses. Social media varies from a fully collaborative approach to learning to social activities so that the learner to actively participate in the learning process. Social media such as Facebook links social issues with active learning to allow students have an all round experience in the learning process. This has been an advantage for Brunel Business School in its

Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 13

Philosophy - Essay Example Happiness can have no other purpose than its own sake. Logically, we can’t desire happiness because we want to be intelligent, smart, successful, or any number of other things. These are things are not as valuable as happiness themselves, because these are the sorts of things that people strive for because they think they can achieve happiness through them. In this way people are using these as a means to an end, and even though this end is happiness, these sorts of things still are not as valuable. For instance, fame and money do not always bring people happiness. Often the case seems to be that the pursuit of these things gets in the way of the pursuit of happiness. People are able to be happy without large amounts of money or being famous, but these don’t make people happy in and of themselves. These things might lead a person to happiness, but happiness will not lead to these things. People also need to seem to have some function. Without a purpose to one’s life, there is no reason to attempt to accomplish anything. People need to feel like they are doing something, because if they feel that they are doing nothing, then there is no real purpose in being. By deliberately attempting to accomplish something, we are able to strive towards happiness. Aristotle felt that people needed to live a life of reason in order to have a purpose. By living a life a reason, it is possible to contribute to one’s own growth as a person, and this is enough to give people purpose. Aristotle was also concerned with virtue. As he saw it, virtue was not simply a matter of having a list of things that could and should be done and a list of things that shouldn’t be done. We must know the reason behind doing things. Take for instance religion. Religion gives people a list of things that should and shouldn’t be done. But religion does not offer reasons for why things

Human Development Essay Example for Free

Human Development Essay Taking a look at the Human Development Index map of Africa, which can be seen on (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Development_Index) on the web; it shows that many of Africas countries are very underdeveloped.7 One of the obvious reasons for why countries is Africa are underachieving is because of how poor is the strength of their economy compared to others. As it is well known, Africa is very rich in mineral resources as many other states rely upon their, possessing most of the known minerals types of the world. Africas economy is more reliant on agriculture than that of any other continent, with around 60% of Africans working in the agricultural sector. Secondly, the economic development of virtually all African nations has been hindered by inadequate transportation systems. Most countries rely on road networks that are composed largely of dirt roads, which become impassable during the rainy seasons. Road networks tend to link the interior of a country to the coast; few road systems link adjacent countries.9 To show how poor and how bad economy crisis is in Africa, one ought to take a look at their food crisis and the growing volume of food imports. Whereas Africa imported an average volume of 1.96 million metric tons of agricultural products in the years 1961-63, by 1980-82 this figure had risen to 11.2 million metric tons at an annual value of over $6.8 billion (over one-seventh of the total value of Africas imports in 1982).Owing to foreign exchange constraints, most African countries have had to rely increasingly on food aid to meet their imported food requirements.10 The commercial sectors of most African states rely heavily on one or a few export commodities. The bulk of trade occurs with industrialized nations, which require raw materials and sell industrial and consumer goods. Trade between African states is limited by the competitive, rather than complementary, nature of their products and by trade barriers, such as tariffs, and the diversity of currencies. Looking at the economy of Europe, a sharp contrast in strength and influence can visibly be seen. Europe has long been a world leader in economic activities. As the birthplace of modern science and of the Industrial Revolution, Europe acquired technological superiority over the rest of the world, which gave it unquestioned dominance in the 19th Century. An important impetus for growth since the mid-20th Century has been the formation of supranational organisations such as the European Union, the European Free Trade Association, and the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. Unlike Africa, Europe has highly developed transport systems, which are densest in the central part of the continent. Many countries in Europe use well maintained transportation systems to transport important goods such as water transport which plays a major role in the European economy. Almost all European countries maintain national airlines, and several, such as Air France, British Airways, Swissair, Germany, and Netherlands are major worldwide carriers.13 Looking at both economies and trade, it is unquestionably obvious that Europe conducts substantial international trade compared to Africa. For Europe, much of its trade is intra-continental, especially among members of the European Union, but also engages in large-scale trade with countries of other continents. Germany, France, Great Britain, Italy and the Netherlands are among the worlds greatest trading nations. A large portion of European inter-continental trade involves the exporting of manufactured goods and the importing o f raw materials. Europes agricultural sector is generally highly developed, especially in Western Europe. The agricultural sector in Europe is helped by the Common Agricultural Policy, which provides farmers with a minimal price for their products and subsidized their exports, which increases competitiveness for their products. This policy is highly controversial as it hampers free trade worldwide (protectionism sparks protectionism from other countries and trade blocs: the concept of trade wars) and is violating the concept of fair trade.15 Africas economy is more reliant on primary products (i.e, agricultural and mineral) than that of any other continent, with around 60% of Africans working in the agricultural sector. About three fifths of African farmers are subsistence farmers tilling small pots of land to feed their families, with only a minimal surplus that can be sold for other goods.16 However, there are significant number of large farms that grow cash crop such as coffee, cotton, cocoa, and rubber; these farms, normally operated by large corporations, cover tens of square kilometres and employ large number of labourers. Africas geography is unsuited to trade and thus hampers its economy. The centre of the continent, at least on the western side, is an almost impenetrable rainforest that greatly impedes the transit of people of goods. Some of the wealthiest parts of South Africa are blocked from the rest of Africa by the Kalahari Desert, while the Sahara creates an obvious barrier to trade. While Africa has a number of great river systems such as those of the Nile, Niger, Congo, and Zambezi, it is not nearly as well-linked rivers as are other areas such as Europe. Moreover, many of the rivers are blocked by rapids and cataracts that require vast development projects if they are to be bypassed. The wetness of the roads and tracks makes transport difficult and hazardous. In addition Africa is cut off from the sea to a greater extent than any other continent. To enforce even more problems to Africa; there is an increasing amount of desertification occurring in Africa where the deserts, especially the Sahara are becoming larger, enveloping area around them, leaving less space for land. This process is partly due to the deforestation of areas of forest; with no roots to hold soil in place, it blows away leaving an infertile desert. Europe has a well developed financial sector. Many European cities are financial centres with the City of London being the largest.19 The European financial sector is helped by the introduction of the euro as common currency. This has made it easier for European households and firms to invest in companies and deposit on banks in other European countries as exchange rate fluctuations are now non-existent in Europe. As mentioned above, Europes economy is superior to that of Africa, so what can Africa do to improve its economy or perhaps what can it take from the Europe economy as a model. Professor J A. van Ginkel held a conference on the Knowledge and Development in Africa; here he talked about ways to improve Africas economy however not only by getting the economic policies right.20 Prof van Ginkel mentions that there is now substantial evidence that institutional weakness in many African countries is a critical obstacle to economic performance.21 From the surveys he conducted on the obstacles to business in Africa it highlights the damage caused by: the unpredictability of changes in laws and policies, the unreliability of law enforcement, and the impact of corrupt bureaucracies.22 Unless governments eliminate these kinds of obstacles then it is unlikely that the economy whether it is just locally in certain parts of Africa or on a national front will flourish. An aspect of the Europe model that Africa can learn from is the aspect of knowledge. No commodity is more expensive than knowledge. An Africa without a sustainable, strong knowledge sector of its own will always remain in a dangerously dependent position. Research and training institutions on the continent can make a critical contribution in at least three ways: by making the most of existing indigenous knowledge; by accessing the vast reservoir of existing global knowledge, as well as the ongoing advances in understanding, and adapting them to suit specific local conditions; and by helping to find innovative solutions to seemingly intractable problems.23 In terms of human resources, it was highlighted in the Seminars of Anticipation that African developments suffers from a tragic paradox: on the one hand, elites trained in Western world are too many (and most of them stay in the US or in the EU because they cannot find well-paid qualified positions in Africa, or because their skills do not correspond to African needs); while on the other hand the well-trained intermediate executives required to manage a modern economy are cruelly missing in Africa (higher technical experts, management executives, civil administrators). To conclude, this essay has looked the economies of both Europe and Africa and compared and contrast both of them. It has also provided information about both economies in terms of trade and finance. A brief history was provided which looked at the relationship between Europe and Africa and to the days of colonisation. Reasons as to why both regions are on different levels economically were provided to show how dominant and rich Europe was and how poor and underdeveloped Africa was. The Africa food crisis was mentioned to give an account of how poor Africa was against other regions. In addition ways that Africa can improve their economy thus bringing it more power and strength so that it can compete with other regions was provided, for example making sure Africa had the aqeduate education so that it learn. Many Africans move to the west so that they can have higher education which is not available in Africa and tend to stay there once they have completed their studies. This is detrimental to Africas development and thus a solution to the problem would be to support the creation of a complete curriculum. This would lead to a massive contribution to the development of vocational and technical education in Africa thus improving Africas economy. So as it can seen, the economies for both Europe and Africa are at this present time in contrast to each other but there is hope for Africa to become more dominant and influential in world affairs if the correct adjustments and policies are introduced to improve them. References Fawcett, L., Hurrell, A., Regionalism in World Politics, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1995, pg 43Â  Ravenhill. J, Africa in economic crisis, Basingstoke, Macmillan, 1986, pg 9Â  www.ciaonet.org/isa/rajo

Nurse-led Respiratory Syncytial Virus Immunisation

Nurse-led Respiratory Syncytial Virus Immunisation Respiratory syncyital virus in pre-term babies. Setting up a nurse led clinic to give Synagis (immunisation) with implications for nursing practice. From the neonatal nurses view point. Introduction The respiratory syncytial virus is identified as a labile paramyxovirus which produces a histologically characteristic effect of causing fusion of human cells in tissue culture – hence the term â€Å"syncytial†. It is commonly sub-classified into types A and B. The B strain is generally asymptomatic in the majority of the population whereas the A subtype tends to produce the more severe illnesses which tend to predominate in the majority of clinically significant outbreaks (Bar-on ME et al 1996). It has an incubation period of 4-6 days and the infection typically lasts from 7-14 days, but does occasionally last up to three weeks. If it becomes necessary to hospitalise a child with respiratory syncytial virus infection, the admission period is typically 5-7 days.(Hentschel J et al 2005) Contagion in the form of virus shedding is its highest levels during days 2-4 of the illness but the active viral particles will continue to be shed for up to 14 days after the clinical onset of symptoms. The respiratory syncytial virus is known to affect both upper and lower respiratory tracts although the most clinically significant manifestations arise in lower respiratory tract infections, bronchiolitis and pneumonia being perhaps the most significant. Bronchiolitis is a particularly severe illness in the pre-term infant by virtue of the fact that it causes very significant small airways obstruction. (Sigurs N et al 1995) The respiratory syncytial virus is currently the commonest identified cause of lower respiratory tract infections in children under the age of three world-wide. Serological studies have identified that, at least in the UK, that virtually all children will have had at least one episode of infection by the age of three. In the infant and neonate age groups, it is currently the numerically largest cause of both pneumonia and bronchiolitis (Krilov L R et al 1997), and is also thought to play a role (as yet not fully understood), in the aetiology of both asthma and chronic obstructive airways disease.(Pullan C R et al 1998) For those patients who have concurrent immunodeficiency states it is a very significant cause of both morbidity and mortality (Long C E et al 1995) Clinical presentation In our considerations here we shall confine our discussion to those clinical manifestations common in the neonatal group and accept that the comments made do not necessarily apply to those older children and adults who may also contract the virus. The respiratory syncytial virus is currently the commonest cause of pneumonia in young children with the greatest preponderance in the under three age range. (Jeng M-J et al 1997) The initial phases of an infection are generally characterised by symptoms of a transient upper respiratory tract infection such as runny nose, watery eyes and mild pyrexia. This typically progresses to produce symptoms of cough, wheeze (although this may be absent in the neonate), high pyrexia, dyspnoea, central cyanosis – characterised by a bluish tinge to the skin, lips and fingernails, increased respiratory rate and occasionally visible utilisation of the accessory muscles of respiration and sub-costal retraction, all of which indicate lower respiratory tract involvement. (Brunell P A 1997). In severe cases it can progress to the point of respiratory failure. In the context of our discussion here, these developments can be extremely dangerous in the pre-term infant who has significantly smaller airways than older children or adults, and also less in the way of respiratory reserve, so that any embarrassment of the respiratory function is of proportionally greater clinical significance. (Graham S M et al 2002) Particular risk factors for a severe bout of the disease are: Prematurity Young age (especially those less than six weeks old) Pre-existing heart conditions (congenital malformations) Pre-existing lung conditions (bronchopulmonary dysplasia and cystic fibrosis ) Immune system malfunction Low socio-economic status and especially those who live in Overcrowded housing conditions Passive exposure to cigarette smoke Day care or childcare attendance Presence of older children in the same household Lack of innate immunity from failure to breast feed. (after Thompson et al. 2003) Mode of infection After each bout of infection the body develops a degree of immunity to the virus. This is less of a factor in the neonate, whose immune system has not developed to the same degree as in the older child. In the pre-term infant , the immune response is (in practical terms) almost non-existent. In any event the immunity is never complete as the virus is capable of subtle mutations of its protein coat which allows it to partially evade the immune system. Re-infections are common but they do tend to be less severe than the original attack. (Panicar J, et al 2004) The mode of spread is through droplet spread and from direct contact with infected nasal or oral fluids. It can enter the body most easily through the epithelial surfaces of the eyes and nose. Epidimiology The respiratory syncytial virus produces characteristic patterns of infection which are epidemics of up to five months duration. They typically occur in the winter months and records show (since 1990) that they typically begin in the time span between October to mid-December with a marked peak in January and February. In the UK, the respiratory syncytial virus is responsible for about 125,000 episodes of hospitalisation (Leader S et al 2002).and about 2,500 deaths (NCHS 2002). These factors are of particular importance in our considerations when we are considering the timing of any protection programme. These figures translate into the fact that 20% of all hospital admissions for lower respiratory tract infections are due to respiratory syncytial virus infections, and if looked at as an annual incidence rate, admission for respiratory syncytial virus infection is currently 28.3 per 1,000 infants and 1.3 per 1,000 for children under the age of 4 years. (Muller-Pebody B et al 2002) The highest rate of clinically significant infection occurs at ages between 2 and 6 months with a significant peak in the 2-3 month age range. Respiratory syncytial virus is typically brought into the home by an older (school age) child who then passes it onto the younger child in the family. In child care and crà ¨che facilities it is quite common to observe 100% infection rates in both children and staff. On a practical note, respiratory syncytial virus infection has also been seen to spread throughout a hospital environment infecting patients and staff alike. (Shay, D K et al 2001), We shall specifically consider the implications of vaccination later in this essay, but there are other issues of prevention that require examination. We have already discussed the mode of common infection through the respiratory and ocular epithelial surfaces. It follows that there are certain measures which, while not eradicating the possibility of spread, will certainly help to reduce it. In the home environment, it is sensible to frequently wash hands after coming into contact with nasal or oral secretions and before handling a young child. Frequent handwashing will reduce the risk of contamination by direct spread. School age children should be kept as separate as practically possible from a neonate if they have symptoms of a â€Å"cold†. Sneezing into a handkerchief will also help to reduce the possibility of droplet transmission. In its droplet form, the virus will live on household surfaces for many hours and is therefore still capable of transmission. In terms of the work of the neonatal community nurse, such patient education should be seen both as part of an empowerment and education programme every bit as much as a prophylactic measure for the neonate. (Hogston, R et al 2002). In the more controlled environment of a hospital, it is possible to institute barrier measures if there is significant risk such as the immuno-compromised patient or the child at risk with congenital heart disease. Frequent pre-touching hand washing is essential to help prevent cross transmission (Ng D K et al 2000). Specific preventative treatments Palivizumab ( or Synagis – Trade name) is a medication that is commonly given to infants at highest risk of complications of respiratory syncytial virus infection, for example those who were born prematurely or those with chronic heart and lung disease. It is given by monthly injection through the at-risk winter months and provides significant levels of protection. This protection however, is comparatively short lived and has to be repeated on a yearly basis until the child is judged to be no longer at high risk of significant sequelae of infection. (PPTI 2005). It is also extremely expensive. (see on). Palivizumab is the first of what may become a series, of monoclonal antibodies, which have been developed to specifically target and combat one specific infection. Its current indications include prevention of serious lower respiratory tract disease caused specifically by the respiratory syncytial virus. There are currently a number of papers that have studied its safety and efficacy in a number of situations such as bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), infants with a history of premature birth (≠¤35 weeks gestational age), and children with hemodynamically significant CHD. (Meissner H C et al 1999), Technically it is a humanised monoclonal antibody of IgG1k type which is produced by recombinant DNA methods. It targets an A antigenic site of the F-protein covering of the virus. It is primarily derived from human antibody sequences and has two light and two heavy chains with a molecular weight of about 148,000 Daltons. The viability of nurse-led respiratory syncytial virus immunisation programme. >From the literature and the evidence that we have presented so far we can point to the fact that the respiratory syncytial virus is a significant risk to neonates, especially those who have significant risk factors for the development of lower respiratory tract complications. (Berwick D 2005) Although we specifically have not considered treatment in this essay, we should note that, in the context of a discussion on the role of prophylaxis, that the treatments available for neonate infection with respiratory syncytial virus are severely limited. In the words of Jon Friedland, an eminent professor of infectious diseases in London: Treating respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis remains a good example of therapeutic nihilism — nothing works except oxygen. Adrenaline, bronchodilators, steroids, and ribavirin all confer no real benefit. (quoted in Handforth J et al 2004) If we accept that this is the case and we also accept the significant morbidity and mortality rates quoted earlier in this essay, then it clearly makes sense to consider the role of prophylaxis in respiratory syncytial virus infections. It clearly therefore also makes sense to consider what active measures can be taken in order to try to reduce the possibility of infection or prevent the damaging and serious sequelae of infection. Sadly, this is far from straightforward. One could reasonably hope that a immunologically based vaccine would have been developed to help with this problem. Despite the fact that the first formalin inactivated respiratory syncytial virus vaccine was developed over forty years ago, progress in this field appears to have been painfully slow. Recently published literature on the subject of the effect of vaccines against respiratory syncytial virus found that there was no significant benefit conferred in terms of preventing either the infection or the complications. (Simoes E A et al 2001). We should note that this was not a small study but a meta-analysis of five major studies on the subject and therefore has considerable weight if we are considering an evidence base for our findings. (Green J et al 1998). If we accept the premise that a successful respiratory syncytial virus vaccine should be able to prevent severe lower respiratory tract disease and the morbidity consequent upon it, and should also ideally protect against both A and B strains of the virus, we would also have to postulate that it would have to be given directly after birth in order to prevent immediate primary infection form the environment. In general terms, this presents the nub of the problem as neonates have very poorly developed immune response mechanisms and the bulk of their immunity is passively derived form the trans-placental maternal antibody production and the immunoglobulins present in the maternal milk. (Kim H W et al 1969). Active immunisation in very early life proves to be fruitless, as the immature neonatal immune system cannot generally produce either an adequate T-cell response or effective antibody levels. It is also the case that the maternal antibodies themselves, also interfere with the infant’s ability to mount an antibody response of its own. (Clements M L et al 1996) In order to combat these problems there are a number of immunological strategies currently under investigation. One strategy is to vaccinate the mother during the third trimester in order to try to boost the naturally occurring antibodies and thereby increase the natural passive immunity. This is unlikely to give significant immunity beyond the first six weeks of birth unless the child is breast fed, in which case the immunity would last for longer (see below). It would however, have the advantage of protecting the most vulnerable individuals at a critical time. Initial trials of this method using a purified F protein subunit vaccine was found to be safe in a trial of 35 third trimester vaccinations. (Munoz FM et al 2003). The trial showed a disappointing, but detectable, response and the infants had increased IgG against respiratory syncytial virus up until 9 months of age. Clearly this strategy would be ineffective against children born with a significant degree of prematurity and who therefore, are at greatest risk A second approach was tried with live attenuated genetically modified vaccine. This approach was found to work in adults and older children but could not be sufficiently attenuated to produce a safe and sufficient response in neonates. (Piedra P A 2003). The third approach was to try live recombinant viral vectors which expressed respiratory syncytial virus proteins. Thus far, the results have been disappointing both in terms of immunogenicity and there are also safety concerns with iatrogenic oncogene activation. (Haller A A et al 2003) In terms of our potential nurse run clinic, all of these options have very significant drawbacks and none are therefore likely to represent a realistic immunisation option. Clarke (S J et al 2000) suggest that although huge strides have been taken with a number of vaccine products – especially the live attenuated vaccines, it will probably be a minimum of another decade before routine effective vaccination becomes widely available. It is perhaps because of this failure to present a solution of a vaccine that has caused researchers to examine other avenues of investigation for workable prophylactics. A line of investigation into passive immunity with IV hyperimmune globulins against respiratory syncytial virus has shown positive results in initial trials against preventing severe forms of respiratory complications in high risk children (Groothuis J R et al 1999). This particular formulation can only be given intravenously and therefore is of limited use outside of a hospital environment. It is clearly of no use in a community setting. The other line of passive immunity has developed into the intramuscular form of IgG humanised monoclonal antibody described above (palivizumab). Clinical trials already published have already shown that monthly injections of palivizumab in high risk infants have been able to reduce the hospital admissions for respiratory syncytial virus-related disease by more than 50% (IRSVSG 1998). This was a well designed double-blind placebo controlled randomised study and, in addition to apparently demonstrating its efficacy, it also showed an impressive safety record. This particular formulation appears to have a very good side-effect profile and clinical experience appears to confirm the initial trial results. Given the fact that respiratory syncytial virus places a heavy financial and economic burden on the NHS, a 50 % reduction in these levels is quite substantial. Cost-effectiveness is clearly a major question in any consideration of a national vaccination programme and studies elsewhere in Europe, (Roeckl-Wiedmann I et al 2003) have called into question the costings and have therefore also called into question the need for further evaluation. These considerations are given further credence if we consider the fact that if we take as a marker the number of hospital laboratory reports of respiratory syncytial virus, there appears to be a marked downward trend in the UK between 1990 and 2003. (Fleming D M et al 2003). It may be that there are other active factors here such as changes in clinical or laboratory practice, but it would appear to reflect a definite downward trend. This comment is actually given further credence when one considers the epidemiological data from the primary health care sources which also show a fall in acute respiratory infections over the same period. (Neuzil K M et al 2000) Passive immunisation is currently considered to be the best option in terms of providing immunity in the community although many authorities consider that it is currently only an option for the high risk infant. In the terms of our consideration here for a nurse run immunisation clinic, we should consider a set of guidelines, (that were actually produced in the USA), which could be adopted as they are based on the current best evidence available. (AAP 2003) The guidelines suggest that passive immunisation (palivizumab ) should be currently considered for premature infants born at less than 32-35 weeks gestation or for infants younger than 2 years with chronic lung disease. Although this is clearly a rational view, we have to note that it is based upon American statistics and American costings and is applicable primarily to American culture. It does not imply that the recommendations are necessarily transferable to the UK situation. The NHS has been more cautious. The current NHS guidelines were considered and formulated by the joint committee on vaccination and immunisation of the Department of Health. (JCVI 2002). Their report notes that: Palivizumab seems safe, well tolerated, and effective in reducing admissions to hospital, but it remains very expensive, at a cost of around  £2500 for five doses over the season for respiratory syncytial virus. In the UK, the statistics seem to suggest that readmission rates associated with respiratory syncytial virus infection-related bronchioliitis show that palivizumab is only cost effective if it is used in infants born prematurely with chronic lung disease and receiving oxygen at home (which is actually a very expensive undertaking in any event). (Feltes T F et al 2003). If this opinion is taken in conjunction with the suspicion that the rates of respiratory syncytial virus infection are actually falling, this will actually weight the cost-effectiveness argument further against the use of palivizumab. It is noted that a more recent study of palivizumab in infants who have congenital heart disease has been completed, but the information collected is insufficient in terms of readmission rates, morbidity and cost-benefit analysis, to allow a confident recommendation for use in this population. (Feltes T F et al 2003) The neonatal nurse’s viewpoint. In this essay we have considered much of the current literature on the subject of community immunisation for respiratory syncytial virus. There is little doubt that the virus represents a significant threat to a small proportion of neonates and a minor threat to the rest. (Crowe JE Jr 1995). It is also clear from the evidence that the prospect of active immunisation of the at risk groups has been aggressively pursued over a time scale of about four decades with very little in the way of positive practical results. In essence, this means that the only realistic prospect of giving the at-risk neonate a degree of protection against the respiratory syncytial virus, is by means of increasing the levels of passive immunity. We have considered the role of the only viable therapeutic agent in this area (palivizumab), and have come to the conclusion that the evidence base for its use is sound if it is given on a monthly basis through the winter months when the at risk populations are at greatest risk of significant morbidity, and indeed mortality. Against this statement we have to weight the cost-effectiveness of what is a very expensive agent. (Handforth J et al 2000). The neonatal community nurse therefore finds herself ideally placed to act as the gatekeeper in this role. By virtue of her position of having direct contact with each of the neonates in her community, she is probably the most optimally places member of the primary healthcare team to assess and oversee the administration of palivizumab to those at greatest risk. (Scally G et al 1998) The mechanics of the enterprise will inevitably vary from practice to practice, but the elements of any recall system will be an up to date age/sex register, a forward planning facility and good communications with the antenatal services so that prospective candidates can be assessed at the earliest opportunity. The multidisciplinary nature of the modern primary healthcare team is ideal for communication of this nature and the neonatal nurse should be able to optimally utilise the recall facilities of the practice in order to ensure maximal compliance once the decision to treat has been made. (Yura H et al 1998) On the positive side there is the fact that Nurse led clinics, in general terms, have been proven to work both effectively and efficiently in many other areas. On the negative side we have the practical situation that the current recommendations from the Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation that the current evidence base supports the view that palivizumab should only be offered to babies in the Group I classification, which currently includes babies under the age of two years with severe chronic lung disease, on home oxygen during the RSV season. This represents about 500 babies a year nationally. Common sense would indicate that there is absolutely no practical rationale for setting up any form of clinic in primary care for this number of babies on a national basis. Even if this recommendation was extended to include those babies in Group II (those with chronic lung disease but not on home oxygen), this would only add another 1000 to the national total and again, clearly there would be absolutely no rationale for setting up a local clinic base for this type of work load. (Netten A et al. 2000) The Committee’s reasoning for offering palivizumab to the Group I babies was on the evidence that it would be likely to reduce hospitalisation by a factor of 40% and thereby be cost effective. The Committee also suggested that these guidelines should be reviewed if a more effective and cheaper vaccine became available. If we consider, for the sake of argument, that such a vaccine has become available and that it is both practical and National policy to set up such vaccination clinics, we can consider the leads given by papers that report experiences in other areas of childhood vaccination. Nesbitt (A et al. 1997) give a very informative overview of the practical difficulties involved in setting up a Hepatitis B vaccination clinic. They point to the problems of trying to reach the most vulnerable and potentially isolated individuals in the community and highlight the need for specific nurse initiated home visits to the persistent absentees to the clinic. (Nesbitt A et al. 1995) They also highlight the difficulties in trying to get a level of immunity in a population that is constantly turning over. It requires a very high degree of vigilance on the part of the nurse running the clinic to ensure that all new arrivals are incorporated into the recall system with complete efficiency and without delay. On a slightly tangential subject, the whole issue of the nurse-led clinic was reviewed and assessed for overall effectiveness and cost effectiveness by Raftery (J et al. 2005). This paper demonstrated, beyond doubt that nurse led clinics could be both effective and very cost effective. This particular paper looked at the role of the clinic in the prevention of heart disease in the adult population, which is clearly not directly applicable to our considerations here, but the important relevant considerations are that the autonomous nurse led clinic can work very effectively with auditable results that can demonstrate both positive health benefits and an efficient and cost-effective use of a nurse’s time. (Polsky D et al. 1997) One of the interesting points raised in this paper which was also directly transferable to a nurse led immunisation clinic was that the increased costs noted also included an element for increased prescribing for intercurrent morbidity that was discovered at the time of the assessment. This is a factor that is likely to be translated into increased costings for the vaccination clinic, as many mothers are likely to save up questions and minor degrees of pathology if they know that they are having an appointment with the practice nurse. (Lancaster T 2003). This may well be translated into increased prescribing costs. Taking a holistic view however, one would hope that these costs would not be incurred without good reason and therefore one could conclude that it would be for the greater good of the patient in the long run and therefore presumably justified. (Benger J R et al. 2005) Considering all of these issues one can see that the viability of the nurse led clinic, certainly in the areas of RSV vaccination, is totally dependant on the development of an effective and cheaper vaccine. 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